Comfort Women
After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the Japanese Empire obtained territorial control of the South Manchuria Railway Zone and the Korean Peninsula. For Japan, Manchuria represented a region with a limitless supply of raw materials, a possible market for their manufactured goods, and a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. In 1931, the Japanese army blew up sections of the South Manchuria Railway track in Manchuria (China), accusing the Chinese forces of having destroyed the railway, to have a reason for invading these territories. The Japanese plan was successful, as the Chinese forces preferred to avoid a major confrontation with the Japanese. Then, in 1932, the Japanese army opened hostilities in Shanghai, occupying it and establishing military stations in this region. This invasion is known also as the ‘Shanghai Incident’.
During the event, the Japanese army not only occupied the region and established military stations there, but the soldiers also treated civilians brutally and committed rape on numerous Chinese women in Shanghai. On March 14, 1932, the Lieutenant-General Naozuburō Okabe, who was in Shanghai, wrote in his diary about these violent cases: ‘Recently I have heard a lot of scandalous stories, including that some of our soldiers wander around seeking women. Such a phenomenon is hard to prevent as fighting becomes less frequent. Therefore, the establishment of appropriate facilities must be accepted as a good cause and should be promoted. In consideration of our soldiers' sexual problems, we have decided to introduce various measures [the comfort women]. Lieutenant-Colonel Nagami Toshimori is now responsible for this task.’(Okabe, Naozaburō. 1986. Okabe Naozaburō Taishō no Nikki. Tokyo: Fuyō Shobō).
Map of Manchukuo
©wikipedia.org
Japanese troops (2nd Division) entering Tsitsihar
©wikipedia.org
The term ‘comfort women’ is an English translation of the Japanese word ianfu 慰安婦, a euphemism for an unpaid prostitute, and refers to the women forced by the Imperial Japanese Army to render sexual services to officers during the years 1931–1945.
It is difficult to say when such cruel practices exactly began, however, much literature suggests that the first Japanese military brothels were set up for the Japanese Navy in Shanghai in the so-called ‘Shanghai Incident’ in 1932.
As the number of troops in the Japanese occupied territories increased, the Japanese army mobilised a greater number of women to the stations. The exact number of such women is currently unknown because key historical documents were burned, but based on other reliable data historians roughly estimate that it ranges from 80,000 to 280,000 people.
As a military policy, the introduction of the comfort women system aimed to prevent further rapes which could incite anti-Japanese sentiment among citizens in occupied territory and, moreover, the spreading of sexually transmitted diseases. Japanese officers recruited women from Korea, China, Dutch East Indies, and other Asian countries using abduction, deceit, and coercion.
Comfort women crossing a river following a troop of soldiers
©wikipedia.org
Military policies on prostitution were not solely a Japanese phenomenon, as was the case during the initial stage of the occupation of Japan after the Second World War. Between August 1945 and March 1946, US forces could use the state-approved brothels the Japanese government had arranged for them, to prevent any conflicts with the population. However, this lasted until March 25, 1946, when the General Headquarters of the Supreme Command completely prohibited the comfort stations and brothel activities.
After the Second World War, the Japanese state attempted to compensate and apologise to the victims, as in the case of Korean comfort women, but there are still surviving victims who demand justice. The issue has remained a controversial topic both politically and diplomatically in Japan and in the countries where the system of comfort women was employed.
Written by Manuel Jose Flores Aguilar
We acknowledge this topic might be controversial and advise the reader to explore the subject further.
Suggested readings
- Henry, Nicola. 2013. „Memory of an Injustice: The “Comfort Women” and the Legacy of the Tokyo Trial“. In: Asian Studies Review, Vol.37(3): 362-380.
- Min, Pyong Gap. 2003. „Korean "Comfort Women": The Intersection of Colonial Power, Gender, and Class“. In: Gender and Society, Vol.17(6): 938-957.
- Schellstede, Sangmie Choi; Soon Mi Yu. 2001. Comfort Women Speak: Testimony from Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military: Includes New United Nations Human Rights Report. New York, NY: Holmes & Meier.
- Soh, Sarah Chunghee. 2008. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.
- Tanaka, Yuki,. 2002. Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation. London: Routledge.