People from Japanese Lore: Queen-Priestess Himiko

10 minutes read

Queen Himiko was described as the mightiest ruler of the Japanese islands. Through her spiritual abilities, she gained the favour of the strongest chiefdoms of the Wa, and solved a generation-long internal conflict. Himiko was revered as a queen and hidden from the sight of the unworthy, as her sacredness was not of human nature. She was among the first rulers to initiate diplomatic exchanges with the continent and set history into motion towards a defined Japanese nation. But who was the legendary Queen Himiko and, more importantly, did she really exist? Why was she mentioned only in a Chinese chronicle from the 3rd century A.C? And not mentioned again, especially in the Japanese recordings? Thus, the following question arose among scholars: was she really the ruler of that chiefdom that eventually became Japan? Did Queen Himiko rule the legendary Yamatai?

These and many more questions have haunted Japanese scholars as long as historiography itself had been practiced in their country. Throughout the years, this intriguing character was the object of many theories and speculations, ranging from being associated with an ancestor of the imperial lineage to a fraudulent impostor. She was discovered by Japanese popular culture and became the object of many interpretation and fantasist elaborations. Without further ado, let’s dig into the evolution of Queen Himiko’s depiction throughout the ages, from legendary queen of the Yamatai to demonic villain in the sci-fi animation Steel Jeeg (kōtetsu jīgu 鋼鉄ジーグ).

Queen Himiko as portrayed in the game Okami, inspired by Japanese folklore (2006). © Capcom - Fair Use

Himiko According to Chinese Contemporary Sources

The ‘culprit’ of the riddle of Himiko is the Wajinden (倭人伝), a section of the Book of Three Kingdoms (Sānguó Zhì 三国志), compiled towards the end of the 3rd century A.C. In this brief chronicle of not more than 2000 characters, the state of affairs in the ‘Land of Wa’ is described. ‘Wa’ is the Chinese nomenclature for the Japanese islands. This compilation proved to be of astounding importance, as it accurately described many of the habits, customs and political realities of the people of Wa, while attempting to locate more than 30 chiefdoms that existed at the time. Among them, the most influential one was presented under the name of Hsie-ma-tai, said to be ruled by a great queen-priestess going by the name of Bei-mi-hu. She was an expert in the way of the spirits and used her powers to gain access to the throne, bringing peace to a kingdom shook by internal conflict.

‘Before that the polity had a male ruler. Seventy or eighty years ago, year after year in the Wa polity there was chaos as they fought each other. Then they made a female the ruler, named Himiko. She was skilled in the Way of Demons, keeping all under her spell. Although well along in years, she remained unmarried. A younger brother assisted her in governing the domain. Once she became the ruler there were few people who saw her. One thousand maidservants waited on her and only one man. He served her food and drink and carried her messages in and out. She lived in a palace resembling a stockade, normally heavily protected by armed guards. In the 6th month of the 2nd year of Jing-chu [A.C. 238], the Wa ruler dispatched Grand Master Natome and others to visit the commandery and to request an audience at the imperial court in order to present tribute. Governor-general Liu-xia sent an officer-escort with them to the capital. In reply to the rescript from the queen of Wa, an imperial edict was issued in the 12th month of the same year: “Himiko, queen of Wa, is designated a friend of Wei.”

[…]

In the 8th year [A.C. 247] Governor-general Wang-qi arrived to take office. Queen of Wa Himiko had been in conflict with Himikoko, the male ruler of Kona, and had sent Kishi-uo and others of Wa to visit the commandery and to make a report on the circumstances of the attack. […] Himiko died and a large mound was built more than a hundred paces in diameter. Over a hundred male and female attendants were immolated. Then a male ruler was installed, but in the ensuing protests within the domain bloodshed and killing exterminated more than a thousand 1000 people. To replace Himiko a 13-year-old relative named Iyo was made ruler of the domain. Stability prevailed.’

The Japanized version of her name, Himiko (卑弥呼) - ruler of the Yamatai (邪馬台国) - suggests that she was likely called Pimeko in the vernacular of the time. Many scholars have speculated that her name was but a title, further casting the identity of this ruler into the shadows of history. Unfortunately, while Chinese historians shine with their ethnographic descriptions, their geographical accuracy is lacking. Thus, if one precisely follows the directions given in these records, the chiefdom of the Yamatai would be located in the Pacific Ocean. This weakness was later instrumentalised by Japanese scholars in order to expel the controversial character of Himiko, whose existence was proven only by Chinese sources.

The Many Faces of Himiko Throughout Japanese History

The epithet of Himiko is not an oddity within the Japanese myths. As the collections record the heavenly origins of the Yamato dynasty, every ancestor is identified as a deity within the Japanese cosmogony. The first part of Himiko’s name, hime, is a typical element of the female members of the Yamato dynasty. Female deities are presented as hime-miko, while male deities are recorded as hiko-miko.

A page from a handmade copy of the Nihon-shoki, early Heian period.

 The compilers of the Nihon-shoki (日本書紀 720 A.C.) were familiar with the Wajinden and other Chinese historical sources, but decided to overlook them to ease the incongruences with their own chronology of the Yamato kingdom. Therefore, there is only one mention of a ‘Queen of Wa’ in the Nihon-shoki, situated in a chapter dedicated to Empress Jingu, wife of Emperor Chuhai. Since the dates proposed in this chronicle for Jingu were compatible with those recorded by the Chinese for queen Himiko, scholars of the time simply connected both figures, and the questions around Himiko’s true identity seemed to be solved for almost a millennium. This association was further consolidated by the work of Urabe Kanekata, a scholar of the Kamakura period (kamakura jidai 鎌倉時代 1185 – 1333) who associated the Yamatai chiefdom with the Yamato kingdom and Himiko with Empress Jingu.

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839 – 1892) Great Japan (Dai-Nihon) History Briefing Session, the 15th Empress Jingu, 1880.

However, this part of historical recording contrasts with the widely accepted all-male rulers of the imperial main branch lineage, moving scholars to erase the Chinese influence from their historiography. Thus, in the Edo period (edo jidai 江戸時代 1603 – 1868), scholars attempted to solve the mystery of Himiko by dissociating her figure from the national mythological cosmogony, erasing her from the imperial lineage. By the 18th century, scholars under the banner of National Studies (kokugaku 国学) began to deconstruct Himiko’s image. Their goal was to demonstrate the superiority of national recordings over Chinese sources, and the mythical queen became one of their main target. An additional reason to locate Himiko far away from the Yamato kingdom was that her tale in the Wajinden was not deemed to be of sufficient magnificence required from a member of the Yamato blood line.  

Motoori Norinaga (1730 – 1801), self-portrait, 1773.

Kokugaku specialists, led by Motoori Norinaga (1730 – 1801), relegated Himiko as a ruler of a chiefdom located in Kyūshū, and separated her chronologically from Empress Jingu by over a century. These scholars used the geographical inaccuracies in the Chinese chronicles as a pretext to doubt the connection between Himiko and the Yamato kingdom. On the one hand, for over a century, virtually all scholars strengthened this position, some even presented Himiko as a southern impostor who deceived the Chinese embassies by portraying herself as the ruler of Yamato. On the other hand, the Tokugawa shogunate punished all people doubting the legitimacy of present and pasts rulers, making all possible criticism to kokugaku assumptions a delicate and dangerous topic. Himiko was then demoted from a Yamato empress to a cunning and disgraceful impostor, a condition she was stuck with until the end of the shogunate, towards the end of the 19th century.

The rapid westernisation of Japan during the Meiji period (meiji jidai 明治時代 1868 – 1912) stimulated the academic world as well. It did not take long before some scholars questioned the conclusion of their kokugaku predecessors regarding both the identity of Himiko and the positioning of Yamatai, as all evidence pointed towards a more eastern location. Fierce disputes between two opposing factions shook the academic world. Many defended the kokugaku theories of the Kyūshū location, while some defended the apparent association between Yamatai and the Yamato kingdom. Nonetheless, even the defendants of the Yamato theory were forced to make some concessions regarding Himiko’s identity. In 1888, the historian Naka Michiyo proved once and for all the incompatibility between the legendary queen and Empress Jingu, by adjusting the timeline presented in the Nihon-shoki. Jingu most likely lived in the 4th century A.C., long after the compilation of the Wajinden; therefore, she could not be the myterious ‘Queen of Wa’. The advocates for the Yamato theory gained some terrain in 1910, when the Japanese historian and sinologist Naitō Torajirō was able to situate the Yamatai within the Yamato region, by following the Wajinden measurements and disregarding the cardinal directions mentioned in the text. Naitō then suggested the possible connection between Himiko and Yamato-hime-no-mikoto, sister of the twelfth emperor Keiko, who had lived in the 2nd century A.C. Needless to say, Naitō’s work reignited the debate among scholars, who presented many observations about Himiko, portraying her in turn as a political instrument, as the unifier of Japan, or even as a metaphor for a collective of rulers.

Naka Michiyo (1851 – 1908), historian and doctor of letters. Said to be at the origin of the concept of
‘Oriental History’.

Naitō Torajirō (1866 – 1934), historian, sinologist and journalist. Founder of the Kyoto School of historiography.

Meanwhile, the debate around Himiko was increasingly affected by censorship, as the country headed towards militaristic nationalism. The genealogy of the emperor became a dangerous topic and scholars were deterred from continuing their debates. During these times, the proponents of both theories agreed on demeaning the Chinese chronicles on behalf of the now sacred Kojiki and Nihon-shoki, which determined the legitimacy of a divine emperor, who became the symbol of an expanding empire.

Prince Arthur of Connaught Offering the Order of the Garter to the Emperor Meiji, on behalf of King Edward VII, lithograph by unknown Japanese artist, 1906, British Museum. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

When Popular Culture Adopted Queen Himiko

The end of the Second World War was a traumatic experience for Japan, but the annihilation of its imperialism injected new life into the academic world. Scholars quickly dusted off topics which previously had been banned, and Himiko re-emerged as an academic obsession. Furthermore, the rapid development of archaeology enabled new perspectives on the mystery of Himiko. However, this academic excitement was only short-lived. In the 1960s, students’ social movements shook universities to the bones, blocking archaeological investigations for over a decade, as ‘digging contributed to the status quo and everything needed to be changed’[1]. By the 1970s, this conflict faded and the debate surrounding the identity of Himiko returned to the scene of academics; this time boosted by mainstream attention. The mysterious and intriguing character of Himiko served as the perfect catalyst to capitalise on the archaeological boom captivating a huge audience. Naturally, the publishing industry certainly did not want to miss this golden opportunity. The market was flooded by all sorts of publications about the Yamatai and Queen Himiko, from pseudo-scientific works to straightforward fantastic fictions. Similar to dogū, Himiko made the leap from an academic subject of debate to one of the many icons of the Japanese popular culture.

Two panels from Hi no Tori recreating the myth of Amaterasu and the heavenly cave.
©Tezuka Production ©Viz Media – Fair Use

The manga and animation industries promptly adopted Himiko, because the flavour of mystery surrounding her offered the authors and directors unlimited possibilities. Osamu Tezuka was a precursor in using Himiko to craft the main villain of a story he tried to develop for over ten years: Hi no Tori (1967). Tezuka created a provocative fusion between Himiko and the sun goddess Amaterasu, which would probably have given nationalist scholars like Motoori Norinaga a heart attack. At the time, popular culture was not bound by historical accuracy, and much less by self-censorship, as the Japanese artists had access to an unprecedented amount of creative liberty, which unfortunately did not last long. Norinaga probably would have preferred Go Nagai’s depiction of Himiko as a hideous demonic invader of Japan, whose minions were systematically defeated by the pilotable robot Jeeg, herald of Japanese technology.

Queen Himika, demonic ruler of the Jamatai. ©Go Nagai ©Tatsuya Yasuda ©Toei Animation – Fair use.

While the Yamatai extravaganza slightly faded at the beginning of the 1980s, the 1986 discovery of an archaeological site from the Yayoi period with unprecedented proportions in the prefecture of Saga, injected new fuel into the academic world. This time, broadcasting media did not want to miss the opportunity to capitalize on the event, and thus the Yoshinogari site occupied the minds of many Japanese people for several years. Saga prefecture was quite thankful for that kind of coverage, as it significantly profited from the archaeological tourism that followed. The site was so rich in discoveries that it did not take long for some scholars to be reminded of the detailed description of Yayoi villages in the Wajinden. The archaeologist Makoto Sahara was the first to make a connection between the remains of the village and Himiko, and little was needed for the advertisement machine to be set in motion once again. Local authorities and national broadcasters hastily labelled Yoshinogari site as the capital of the long-lost realm of Himiko, the legendary Yamatai. This marketing plot was a complete success, and the archaeological site was stormed by visitors in the following years. However, researchers were less thrilled by this development, as they were constantly put under national spotlight and could not operate with the calm and caution needed when attempting to interpretate archaeological findings. Every item, which could possibly be attributed to the Yamatai narrative, was almost celebrated nationally, with little regard to other, maybe more plausible, interpretations. But the archaeologists were in luck. The mainstream audience slowly lost interest and the scholars could peacefully resume their debates regarding the identity and location of Himiko.

Yoshinogari archeological site and its reconstruction of a middle stage Yayoi village. ©Saga Prefectural Tourism Federation

Recent developments in the field of archaeology have re-evaluated the time frame during which huge burial mounds were made, making it possible to associate this practice with the story of Himiko. According to many current scholars, if the Wajinden can be believed, the most plausible location of Himiko is the mound of Hashihaka in Sakurai, Nara prefecture. This tomb is nowadays considered to be the oldest identified so far and has been associated with the sepulchre of Yamato-hime-no-mikoto, possibly the alter-ego of Himiko. Unfortunately, this hypothesis is very unlikely to be verified, as the site falls under the authority of the Imperial Household Agency, which is strictly prohibiting access, because it is, after all, the resting place of an ancestor of the current emperor.

Side view of Hashihaka Kofun. ©Saigen Jiro

To this day, the riddle of Himiko has yet to be solved. It might even forever remain one of the many unsolved mysteries of prehistorical Japan. Yet, it is probably due to Himiko’s aura of mystery that Japanese are still captivated by her, as she does not cease to appear in the collective consciousness. There are not one but two cities who adopted her as their official mascot, by transforming her into a super deformed character. In 2006 she made an appearance in the Japanese folklore influenced game Okami, and in 2013 Himiko became the central plot element for the reboot of the notorious Tomb Raider franchise. The fact that Himiko, the Shaman Queen, has been summoned again this recently in the form of video game characters just provides further proof that she still keeps fascinating (or bewitching?) the Japanese, even two millennia after her death.

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[1] Kidder, J. Edward. 2007. Himiko and Japan’s Elusive Chiefdom of Yamatai Archaeology, History, and Mythology. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, p.31.

Written by Marty Borsotti